Tiếng anh học thuật...

[KID1412]

Đầu tiên xin nói trước là entry này hơi bị....dài! Bác nào thấy hữu ích thì quick scan thử xem có "hữu dụng" hay không rồi sử dụng nhé


Beginning
1. In this paper
2. This paper proceeds as follow.
3. The structure of the paper is as follows.
4. In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related concepts
5. To begin with we will provide a brief background on the


Introduction
1. This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined.
2. Details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections.
3. In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered.


Review
1. This review is followed by an introduction.
2. A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in Section 2.
3. In the next section, a brief review of the .... is given.
4. In the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regard to ...
5. Section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx.
6. Section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while 1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods.


Body
1. Section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importance.
2. Section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the FLC decision making logic.
3. Section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxx
4. Section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural language understanding.
5. Section 2 explains how flexibility which often ... can be expressed in terms of fuzzy time window
6. Section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the ...
7. Section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the ….. and also discusses how to evaluate system performance.
8. Section 3 describes a new measure of xx.
9. Section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis of xx.
10. Section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision.
11. Section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision rules
12. The main idea of the FLC is described in Section 3 while Section 4 describes the xx strategies.
13. Section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed model.
14. Section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set based approach to cost variance investigation.
15. Section 4 gives a specific example of xxx.
16. Section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory process.
17. Section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of Section 2 and 3.
18. Section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx and illustrate its use on experimental data.
19. Section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model ..
20. Section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work.
21. Section 6 illustrates the model with an example.
22. Various ways of justification and the reasons for their choice are discussed very briefly in Section 2.
23. In Section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model of human DM system
24. In Section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a ... scheme must satisfy.
25. In Section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness theorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discourse is order dense.
26. In Section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct membership functions.
27. In Section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of inference experiments...

This Section
1. In this section, the characteristics and environment under which MRP is designed are described.
2. We will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations which are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.Next Section
2. The next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer implementation of such fuzzy logic statements.
3. However, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section.
4. The three components will be described in the next two section, and an example of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate their use.
5. We can interpret the results of Experiments I and II as in the following sections.
6. The next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for arguments based on xx


Summary
1. This paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration in section 5.
2. Section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation.
3. Section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research.
4. Section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the paper.
5. Finally, conclusions and future work are summarized
6. The basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are drawn.
7. Section 7 is the conclusion of the paper.


Chapter 0. Abstract
1. A basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xx rate for the measurement of experimental variables.
2. This paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzy mathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures.
3. This paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx.
4. The method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations.
5. The procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision.
6. The technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx algorithm.
7. The usefulness of xx is also considered.
8. A brief methodology used in xx is discussed.
9. The analysis is useful in xx and xx problem.
10. A model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices.
11. Algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presented and justified.
12. The use of the method is discussed and an example is given.
13. Results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedure are given to illustrate the proposed technique.
14. This paper analyses problems in
15. This paper outlines the functions carried out by ...
16. This paper includes an illustration of the ...
17. This paper provides an overview and information useful for approaching
18. Emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which the xx in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated.
19. The main emphasis is placed on the problem of xx
20. Our proposed model is verified through experimental study.
21. The experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of: xx, xx
22. The compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and xx are likewise represented by linguistic variables.
23. A didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedure


Chapter 1. Introduction
Time
1. Over the course of the past 30 years, .. has emerged form intuitive
2. Technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial world
3. The advent of ... systems for has had a significant impact on the
4. The development of ... is explored
5. During the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a variety of directions
6.The concept of xx was investigated quite intensively in recent years
7. There has been a turning point in ... methodology in accordance with the advent of ...
8. A major concern in ... today is to continue to improve...
9. A xx is a latecomer in the part representation arena.
10. At the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of xx
11. Although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses, the efficient and effective method has yet to be developed.
12. The pioneer work can be traced to xx [1965].
13. To date, none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far from ready to be used in commercial systems.


Objective / Goal / Purpose
1. The purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows:
2. The ultimate goal of the xx system is to allow the non experts to utilize the existing knowledge in the area of manual handling of loads, and to provide intelligent, computer aided instruction for xxx.
3. The paper concerns the development of a xx
4. The scope of this research lies in
5. The main theme of the paper is the application of rule based decision making.
6. These objectives are to be met with such thoroughness and confidence as to permit ...
7. The objectives of the ... operations study are as follows:
8. The primary purpose/consideration/objective of
9. The ultimate goal of this concept is to provide
10. The main objective of such a ... system is to
11. The aim of this paper is to provide methods to construct such probability distribution.
12. In order to achieve these objectives, an xx must meet the following requirements:
13. In order to take advantage of their similarity
14. more research is still required before final goal of ... can be completed
15. In this trial, the objective is to generate...
16. for the sake of concentrating on ... research issues
17. A major goal of this report is to extend the utilization of a recently developed procedure for the xx.
18. For an illustrative purpose, four well known OR problems are studied in presence of fuzzy data: xx.
19. A major thrust of the paper is to discuss approaches and strategies for structuring ..methods
20. This illustration points out the need to specify
21. The ultimate goal is both descriptive and prescriptive.
22. Chapter 2. Literature Review
23. A wealth of information is to be found in the statistics literature, for example, regarding xx
24. A considerable amount of research has been done .. during the last decade
25. A great number of studies report on the treatment of uncertainties associated with xx.
26. There is considerable amount of literature on planning
27. However, these studies do not provide much attention to uncertainty in xx.
28. Since then, the subject has been extensively explored and it is still under investigation as well in
methodological aspects as in concrete applications.
29. Many research studies have been carried out on this topic.
30. Problem of xx draws recently more and more attention of system analysis.
31. Attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in the development of
32. Many complex processes unfortunately, do not yield to this design procedure and have, therefore, not yet been automated.
33. Most of the methods developed so far are deterministic and /or probabilistic in nature.
34. The central issue in all these studies is to
35. The problem of xx has been studied by other investigators, however, these studies have been based upon classical statistical approaches.
36. Applied ... techniques to
37. Characterized the ... system as
38. Developed an algorithm to
39. Developed a system called ... which
40. Uses an iterative algorithm to deduce
41. Emphasized the need to
42. Identifies six key issues surrounding high technology
43. A comprehensive study of the... has been undertaken
44. Much work has been reported recently in these filed
45. Proposed/Presented/State that/Described/Illustrated/
Indicated/Has shown / showed/Address/Highlights
46. Point out that the problem of
47. A study on ...was done / developed by []
48. Previous work, such as [] and [], deal only with
49. The approach taken by [] is
50. The system developed by [] consists
51. A paper relevant to this research was published by []
52. []'s model requires consideration of...
53. []'s model draws attention to evolution in human development
54. []'s model focuses on...
55. Little research has been conducted in applying ... to
56. The published information that is relevant to this research...
57. This study further shows that
58. Their work is based on the principle of
59. More history of ... can be found in xx et al. [1979].
60. Studies have been completed to established
61. The ...studies indicated that
62. Though application of xx in the filed of xx has proliferated in recent years, effort in analyzing xx, especially xx, is lacking.
Problem / Issue / Question
63. Unfortunately, real-world engineering problems such as manufacturing planning do not fit well with this narrowly defined model. They tend to span broad activities and require consideration of multiple aspects.
64. Remedy / solve / alleviate these problems
67. ... is a difficult problem, yet to be adequately resolved
68. Two major problems have yet to be addressed
69. An unanswered question
70. This problem in essence involves using x to obtain a solution.
71. An additional research issue to be tackled is ....
72. Some important issues in developing a ... system are discussed
73. The three prime issues can be summarized:
74. The situation leads to the problem of how to determine the ...
75. There have been many attempts to
76. It is expected to be serious barrier to
77. It offers a simple solution in a limited domain for a complex

Thanks for sharing an interesting manuscript about structural paper. In generally, It will take a lot of time to write a scientific paper. If you have a good outline you can save a lot of energy. by that way the more you spend for structural paper the better you get. thanks again and hope to see more contribution from you, good luck

I. Thesis structure
Title Page
Title (including subtitle), author, institution, department, date of delivery, research mentor, mentor's institution

Abstract

* A good abstract explains in one line why the paper is important. It then goes on to give a summary of your major results, preferably couched in numbers with error limits. The final sentences explain the major implications of your work. A good abstract is concise, readable, and quantitative.
* Length should be ~ 1-2 paragraphs, approx. 400 words.
* Absrtracts generally do not have citations.
* Information in title should not be repeated.
* Be explicit.
* Use numbers where appropriate.
* Answers to these questions should be found in the abstract:
1. What did you do?
2. Why did you do it? What question were you trying to answer?
3. How did you do it? State methods.
4. What did you learn? State major results.
5. Why does it matter? Point out at least one significant implication.

Table of Contents

* list all headings and subheadings with page numbers
* indent subheadings
* it will look something like this:

List of Figures xxx
List of Tables
Introduction
subheads ...?
Methods
subheads ...?
Results
subheads ...?
Discussion
subheads ...?
Conclusion
Recommendations
Acknowledgments
References
Appendices
List of Figures
List page numbers of all figures.
The list should include a short title for each figure but not the whole caption.
List of Tables
List page numbers of all tables.
The list should include a short title for each table but not the whole caption.
Introduction
You can't write a good introduction until you know what the body of the paper says. Consider writing the introductory section(s) after you have completed the rest of the paper, rather than before.

Be sure to include a hook at the beginning of the introduction. This is a statement of something sufficiently interesting to motivate your reader to read the rest of the paper, it is an important/interesting scientific problem that your paper either solves or addresses. You should draw the reader in and make them want to read the rest of the paper.

The next paragraphs in the introduction should cite previous research in this area. It should cite those who had the idea or ideas first, and should also cite those who have done the most recent and relevant work. You should then go on to explain why more work was necessary (your work, of course.)

What else belongs in the introductory section(s) of your paper?

1. A statement of the goal of the paper: why the study was undertaken, or why the paper was written. Do not repeat the abstract.
2. Sufficient background information to allow the reader to understand the context and significance of the question you are trying to address.
3. Proper acknowledgement of the previous work on which you are building. Sufficient references such that a reader could, by going to the library, achieve a sophisticated understanding of the context and significance of the question.
4. The introduction should be focused on the thesis question(s). All cited work should be directly relevent to the goals of the thesis. This is not a place to summarize everything you have ever read on a subject.
5. Explain the scope of your work, what will and will not be included.
6. A verbal "road map" or verbal "table of contents" guiding the reader to what lies ahead.
7. Is it obvious where introductory material ("old stuff") ends and your contribution ("new stuff") begins?

Remember that this is not a review paper. We are looking for original work and interpretation/analysis by you. Break up the introduction section into logical segments by using subheads.
Methods
What belongs in the "methods" section of a scientific paper?

1. Information to allow the reader to assess the believability of your results.
2. Information needed by another researcher to replicate your experiment.
3. Description of your materials, procedure, theory.
4. Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and calibration plots.
5. Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity.
6. Desciption of your analystical methods, including reference to any specialized statistical software.

The methods section should answering the following questions and caveats:

1. Could one accurately replicate the study (for example, all of the optional and adjustable parameters on any sensors or instruments that were used to acquire the data)?
2. Could another researcher accurately find and reoccupy the sampling stations or track lines?
3. Is there enough information provided about any instruments used so that a functionally equivalent instrument could be used to repeat the experiment?
4. If the data are in the public domain, could another researcher lay his or her hands on the identical data set?
5. Could one replicate any laboratory analyses that were used?
6. Could one replicate any statistical analyses?
7. Could another researcher approximately replicate the key algorithms of any computer software?

Citations in this section should be limited to data sources and references of where to find more complete descriptions of procedures.
Do not include descriptions of results.
Results

* The results are actual statements of observations, including statistics, tables and graphs.
* Indicate information on range of variation.
* Mention negative results as well as positive. Do not interpret results - save that for the discussion.
* Lay out the case as for a jury. Present sufficient details so that others can draw their own inferences and construct their own explanations.
* Use S.I. units (m, s, kg, W, etc.) throughout the thesis.
* Break up your results into logical segments by using subheadings
* Key results should be stated in clear sentences at the beginning of paragraphs. It is far better to say "X had significant positive relationship with Y (linear regression p<0.01, r^2=0.79)" then to start with a less informative like "There is a significant relationship between X and Y". Describe the nature of the findings; do not just tell the reader whether or not they are significant.

Note: Results vs. Discussion Sections
Quarantine your observations from your interpretations. The writer must make it crystal clear to the reader which statements are observation and which are interpretation. In most circumstances, this is best accomplished by physically separating statements about new observations from statements about the meaning or significance of those observations. Alternatively, this goal can be accomplished by careful use of phrases such as "I infer ..." vast bodies of geological literature became obsolete with the advent of plate tectonics; the papers that survived are those in which observations were presented in stand-alone fashion, unmuddied by whatever ideas the author might have had about the processes that caused the observed phenomena.

How do you do this?

1. Physical separation into different sections or paragraphs.
2. Don't overlay interpretation on top of data in figures.
3. Careful use of phrases such as "We infer that ".
4. Don't worry if "results" seem short.

Why?

1. Easier for your reader to absorb, frequent shifts of mental mode not required.
2. Ensures that your work will endure in spite of shifting paradigms.

Discussion
Start with a few sentences that summarize the most important results. The discussion section should be a brief essay in itself, answering the following questions and caveats:

1. What are the major patterns in the observations? (Refer to spatial and temporal variations.)
2. What are the relationships, trends and generalizations among the results?
3. What are the exceptions to these patterns or generalizations?
4. What are the likely causes (mechanisms) underlying these patterns resulting predictions?
5. Is there agreement or disagreement with previous work?
6. Interpret results in terms of background laid out in the introduction - what is the relationship of the present results to the original question?
7. What is the implication of the present results for other unanswered questions in earth sciences, ecology, environmental policy, etc....?
8. Multiple hypotheses: There are usually several possible explanations for results. Be careful to consider all of these rather than simply pushing your favorite one. If you can eliminate all but one, that is great, but often that is not possible with the data in hand. In that case you should give even treatment to the remaining possibilities, and try to indicate ways in which future work may lead to their discrimination.
9. Avoid bandwagons: A special case of the above. Avoid jumping a currently fashionable point of view unless your results really do strongly support them.
10. What are the things we now know or understand that we didn't know or understand before the present work?
11. Include the evidence or line of reasoning supporting each interpretation.
12. What is the significance of the present results: why should we care?

This section should be rich in references to similar work and background needed to interpret results. However, interpretation/discussion section(s) are often too long and verbose. Is there material that does not contribute to one of the elements listed above? If so, this may be material that you will want to consider deleting or moving. Break up the section into logical segments by using subheads.
Conclusions

* What is the strongest and most important statement that you can make from your observations?
* If you met the reader at a meeting six months from now, what do you want them to remember about your paper?
* Refer back to problem posed, and describe the conclusions that you reached from carrying out this investigation, summarize new observations, new interpretations, and new insights that have resulted from the present work.
* Include the broader implications of your results.
* Do not repeat word for word the abstract, introduction or discussion.

Recommendations

* Include when appropriate (most of the time)
* Remedial action to solve the problem.
* Further research to fill in gaps in our understanding.
* Directions for future investigations on this or related topics.

Acknowledgments
Advisor(s) and anyone who helped you:

1. technically (including materials, supplies)
2. intellectually (assistance, advice)
3. financially (for example, departmental support, travel grants)

References

* cite all ideas, concepts, text, data that are not your own
* if you make a statement, back it up with your own data or a reference
* all references cited in the text must be listed
* cite single-author references by the surname of the author (followed by date of the publication in parenthesis)
o ... according to Hays (1994)
o ... population growth is one of the greatest environmental concerns facing future generations (Hays, 1994).
* cite double-author references by the surnames of both authors (followed by date of the publication in parenthesis)
o e.g. Simpson and Hays (1994)
* cite more than double-author references by the surname of the first author followed by et al. and then the date of the publication
o e.g. Pfirman, Simpson and Hays would be:
o Pfirman et al. (1994)
* do not use footnotes
* list all references cited in the text in alphabetical order using the following format for different types of material:
o Hunt, S. (1966) Carbohydrate and amino acid composition of the egg capsules of the whelk. Nature, 210, 436-437.
o National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1997) Commonly asked questions about ozone. http://www.noaa.gov/public-affairs/grounders/ozo1.html, 9/27/97.
o Pfirman, S.L., M. Stute, H.J. Simpson, and J. Hays (1996) Undergraduate research at Barnard and Columbia, Journal of Research, 11, 213-214.
o Pechenik, J.A. (1987) A short guide to writing about biology. Harper Collins Publishers, New York, 194pp.
o Pitelka, D.R., and F.M. Child (1964) Review of ciliary structure and function. In: Biochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa, Vol. 3 (S.H. Hutner, editor), Academic Press, New York, 131-198.
o Sambrotto, R. (1997) lecture notes, Environmental Data Analysis, Barnard College, Oct 2, 1997.
o Stute, M., J.F. Clark, P. Schlosser, W.S. Broecker, and G. Bonani (1995) A high altitude continental paleotemperature record derived from noble gases dissolved in groundwater from the San Juan Basin, New Mexico. Quat. Res., 43, 209-220.
o New York Times (1/15/00) PCBs in the Hudson still an issue, A2.
* it is acceptable to put the initials of the individual authors behind their last names, e.g. Pfirman, S.L., Stute, M., Simpson, H.J., and Hays, J (1996) Undergraduate research at ......

Appendices

* Include all your data in the appendix.
* Reference data/materials not easily available (theses are used as a resource by the department and other students).
* Tables (where more than 1-2 pages).
* Calculations (where more than 1-2 pages).
* You may include a key article as appendix.
* If you consulted a large number of references but did not cite all of them, you might want to include a list of additional resource material, etc.
* List of equipment used for an experiment or details of complicated procedures.
* Note: Figures and tables, including captions, should be embedded in the text and not in an appendix, unless they are more than 1-2 pages and are not critical to your argument.

II. Crosscutting Issues
What Are We Looking For?
We are looking for a critical analysis. We want you to answer a scientific question or hypothesis. We would like you to gather evidence -- from various sources -- to allow you to make interpretations and judgments. Your approach/methods should be carefully designed to come to closure. Your results should be clearly defined and discussed in the context of your topic. Relevant literature should be cited. You should place your analysis in a broader context, and highlight the implications (regional, global, etc.) of your work. We are looking for a well-reasoned line of argument, from your initial question, compilation of relevant evidence, setting data in a general/universal context, and finally making a judgment based on your analysis. Your thesis should be clearly written and in the format described below.
Planning Ahead for Your Thesis
If at all possible, start your thesis research during the summer between your junior and senior year - or even earlier - with an internship, etc. ... then work on filling in background material and lab work during the fall so that you're prepared to write and present your research during the spring . The best strategy is to pick a project that you are interested in, but also that a faculty member or other professional is working on. This person will become your research mentor and this gives you someone to talk with and get background material from. If you're unsure about the selection of a project, let us know and we'll try to connect you with someone.


Writing for an Audience
Who is your audience?

1. Researchers working in analogous field areas elsewhere in the world (i.e. other strike-slip faults, other deep sea fans).
2. Researchers working in your field area, but with different techniques.
3. Researchers working on the same interval of geologic time elsewhere in the world.
4. All other researchers using the same technique you have used .
5. If your study encompasses an active process, researchers working on the same process in the ancient record.
6. Conversely, if your study is based on the rock record, people studying modem analogs.
7. People writing a synthesis paper on important new developments in your field.
8. People applying earth science to societal problems (i.e. earthquake hazard reduction, climate warming) who will try to understand your paper.
9. Potential reviewers of your manuscript or your thesis committee.

Skimming vs. Reading
Because of the literature explosion, papers more skimmed than read. Skimming involves reading the abstract, and looking at the figures and figure captions. Therefore, you should construct your paper so that it can be understood by skimming, i.e., the conclusions, as written in your abstract, can be understood by study of the figures and captions. The text fills out the details for the more interested reader.

Order of Writing
Your thesis is not written in the same order as it is presented in. The following gives you one idea how to proceed.

1. first organize your paper as a logical argument before you begin writing
2. make your figures to illustrate your argument (think skimming)
3. the main sections are: background to the argument (intro); describing the information to be used in the argument, and making points about them (observations), connecting the points regarding the info (analysis), summing up (conclusions).
4. outline the main elements: sections, and subsections
5. begin writing, choosing options in the following hierarchy - paragraphs, sentences, and words.

Here is another approach.

1. Write up a preliminary version of the background section first. This will serve as the basis for the introduction in your final paper.
2. As you collect data, write up the methods section. It is much easier to do this right after you have collected the data. Be sure to include a description of the research equipment and relevant calibration plots.
3. When you have some data, start making plots and tables of the data. These will help you to visualize the data and to see gaps in your data collection. If time permits, you should go back and fill in the gaps. You are finished when you have a set of plots that show a definite trend (or lack of a trend). Be sure to make adequate statistical tests of your results.
4. Once you have a complete set of plots and statistical tests, arrange the plots and tables in a logical order. Write figure captions for the plots and tables. As much as possible, the captions should stand alone in explaining the plots and tables. Many scientists read only the abstract, figures, figure captions, tables, table captions, and conclusions of a paper. Be sure that your figures, tables and captions are well labeled and well documented.
5. Once your plots and tables are complete, write the results section. Writing this section requires extreme discipline. You must describe your results, but you must NOT interpret them. (If good ideas occur to you at this time, save them at the bottom of the page for the discussion section.) Be factual and orderly in this section, but try not to be too dry.
6. Once you have written the results section, you can move on to the discussion section. This is usually fun to write, because now you can talk about your ideas about the data. If you can come up with a good cartoon/schematic showing your ideas, do so. Many papers are cited in the literature because they have a good cartoon that subsequent authors would like to use or modify.
7. In writing the discussion session, be sure to adequately discuss the work of other authors who collected data on the same or related scientific questions. Be sure to discuss how their work is relevant to your work. If there were flaws in their methodology, this is the place to discuss it.
8. After you have discussed the data, you can write the conclusions section. In this section, you take the ideas that were mentioned in the discussion section and try to come to some closure. If some hypothesis can be ruled out as a result of your work, say so. If more work is needed for a definitive answer, say that.
9. The final section in the paper is a recommendation section. This is really the end of the conclusion section in a scientific paper. Make recommendations for further research or policy actions in this section. If you can make predictions about what will be found if X is true, then do so. You will get credit from later researchers for this.
10. After you have finished the recommendation section, look back at your original introduction. Your introduction should set the stage for the conclusions of the paper by laying out the ideas that you will test in the paper. Now that you know where the paper is leading, you will probably need to rewrite the introduction.
11. You must write your abstract last.



Figures and Tables

* The actual figures and tables should be embedded/inserted in the text, generally on the page following the page where the figure/table is first cited in the text.
* All figures and tables should be numbered and cited consecutively in the text as figure 1, figure 2, table 1, table 2, etc.
* Include a caption for each figure and table, citing how it was constructed (reference citations, data sources, etc.) and highlighting the key findings (think skimming). Include an index figure (map) showing and naming all locations discussed in paper.
* You are encouraged to make your own figures, including cartoons, schematics or sketches that illustrate the processes that you discuss. Examine your figures with these questions in mind:
1. Is the figure self-explanatory?
2. Are your axes labeled and are the units indicated?
3. Show the uncertainty in your data with error bars.
4. If the data are fit by a curve, indicate the goodness of fit.
5. Could chart junk be eliminated?
6. Could non-data ink be eliminated?
7. Could redundant data ink be eliminated?
8. Could data density be increased by eliminating non-data bearing space?
9. Is this a sparse data set that could better be expressed as a table?
10. Does the figure distort the data in any way?
11. Are the data presented in context?
12. Does the figure caption guide the reader's eye to the "take-home lesson" of the figure?
* Figures should be oriented vertically, in portrait mode, wherever possible. If you must orient them horizontally, in landscape mode, orient them so that you can read them from the right, not from the left, where the binding will be.

Tying the Text to the Data
"Show them, don't just tell them…" Ideally, every result claimed in the text should be documented with data, usually data presented in tables or figures. If there are no data provided to support a given statement of result or observation, consider adding more data, or deleting the unsupported "observation."
Examine figure(s) or table(s) pertaining to the result(s).
Assess whether:

1. the data support the textual statement
2. the data contradict the textual statement
3. the data are insufficient to prove or refute the textual statement
4. the data may support the textual statement, but are not presented in such a way that you can be sure you are seeing the same phenomenon in the data that the author claims to have seen.

Giving Credit
How does one fairly and accurately indicate who has made what contributions towards the results and interpretations presented in your paper?: by referencing, authorship, and acknowledgements.
Different types of errors:

1. direct quotes or illustrations without quotation marks, without attribution
2. direct quotes without quotation marks, with attribution
3. concepts/ideas without attribution
4. concepts/ideas with sloppy attribution
5. omitting or fabricating data or results

Check references carefully and reread reference works prior to publication. The first time you read something, you will consciously remember some things, but may subconsciously take in other aspects. It is important to cross check your conscious memory against your citations.
See also:
D. Kennedy, 1985, On Academic Authorship
Sigma Xi, 1984, Honor in Science
Yale University pamphlet on plagiarism

Final Thesis

* Make 3 final copies: 1 to mentor and 2 to department, so that we can have 2 readers.
* Final thesis should be bound.
* Printed cleanly on white paper.
* Double-spaced using 12-point font.
* 1-inch margins.
* Double-sided saves paper.
* Include page numbers.

Resources

* The Barnard Writing Room provides assistance on writing senior theses.
* Look at other theses on file in the Environmental Science department, they will give you an idea of what we are looking for.
* Of course do not hesitate to ask us, or your research advisor for help.
* The Barnard Environmental Science Department has many books on scientific writing, ask the departmental administrator for assistance in locating them.
* Also see additional books listed as Resources.

III. Editing Your Thesis
Even a rough draft should be edited.

Copy Editing

1. Proof read your thesis a few times.
2. Check your spelling. spellcheckers are useful for initial checking, but don't catch homonyms (e.g. hear, here), so you need to do the final check by eye.
3. Make sure that you use complete sentences
4. Check your grammar: punctuation, sentence structure, subject-verb agreement (plural or singular), tense consistency, etc.
5. Give it to others to read and comment.

Content Editing

1. logic
2. repetition, relevance
3. style

Avoiding ambiguity

1. Do not allow run-on sentences to sneak into your writing; try semicolons.
2. Avoid nested clauses/phrases.
3. Avoid clauses or phrases with more than two ideas in them.
4. Do not use double negatives.
5. Do not use dangling participles (i.e. phrases with an "-ing" verb, in sentences where the agent performing the action of the "-ing" verb is not specified: " After standing in boiling water for two hours, examine the flask.").
6. Make sure that the antecedent for every pronoun (it, these, those, that, this, one) is crystal clear. If in doubt, use the noun rather than the pronoun, even if the resulting sentence seems a little bit redundant.
7. Ensure that subject and verb agree in number (singular versus plural).
8. Be especially careful with compound subjects. Be especially careful with subject/verb agreement within clauses.
9. Avoid qualitative adjectives when describing concepts that are quantifiable ("The water is deep." "Plate convergence is fast." "Our algorithm is better.") Instead, quantify. ("Water depths exceed 5km.")
10. Avoid noun strings ("acoustic noise source location technique").
11. Do not use unexplained acronyms. Spell out all acronyms the first time that you use them.

Thesis length
Write for brevity rather than length. The goal is the shortest possible paper that contains all information necessary to describe the work and support the interpretation.
Avoid unnecessary repetition and irrelevant tangents.
Necessary repetition: the main theme should be developed in the introduction as a motivation or working hypothesis. It is then developed in the main body of the paper, and mentioned again in the discussion section (and, of course, in the abstract and conclusions).
Some suggestions on how to shorten your paper:

1. Use tables for repetitive information.
2. Include only sufficient background material to permit the reader to understand your story, not every paper ever written on the subject.
3. Use figure captions effectively.
4. Don't describe the contents of the figures and/or tables in the text item-by-item. Instead, use the text to point out the most significant patterns, items or trends in the figures and tables.
5. Delete "observations" or "results" that are mentioned in the text for which you have not shown data.
6. Delete "conclusions" that are not directly supported by your observations or results.
7. Delete "interpretation" or "discussion" sections that are inconclusive.
8. Delete "interpretation" or "discussion" sections that are only peripherally related to your new results or observations.
9. Scrutinize adjectives! adverbs and prepositional phrases.

Although it varies considerably from project to project, average thesis length is about 40 pages of text plus figures. This total page count includes all your text as well as the list of references, but it does not include any appendices. These generalizations should not be taken too seriously, especially if you are working on a labor-intensive lab project. If you have any questions about whether your project is of sufficient scope, consult one of us early on.


Writing for an International Audience

1. Put as much information as possible into figures and tables. In particular, try to find a way to put your conclusions into a figure, perhaps a flowchart or a cartoon.
2. Don't assume that readers are familiar with the geography or the stratigraphy of your field area.
3. Every single place-name mentioned in the text should be shown on a map.
4. Consider including a location map, either as a separate figure or as an inset to another figure. If your paper involves stratigraphy, consider including a summary stratigraphic column--in effect, a location map in time.
5. Use shorter sentences. Avoid nested clauses or phrases.
6. Avoid idioms. Favor usages that can be looked up in an ordinary dictionary. "Take the beaker out of the oven immediately..." rather than "Take the beaker out of the oven right away..."



According to http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~martins/sen_sem/thesis_org.html

good topic!
Nhưng mà sao càng đọc càng dài vậy??? Sao không chia ra?